SIGMUND FREUD
"When you think of this dividing up of the personality into ego, super-ego
and id, you must not imagine sharp dividing lines such as are artificially
drawn in the field of political geography. We cannot do justice to the
characteristics of the mind by means of linear contours, such as occur
in a drawing or in a primitive painting, but we need rather the areas of
colour shading off into one another that are to be found in modern pictures.
After we have made our separations, we must allow what we have separated
to merge again. Do not judge too harshly of a first attempt at picturing
a thing so elusive as the human mind."
--Sigmund Freud, An
Outline of Psychoanalysis (1940)
On Freud
Psychoanalysis was given birth by Sigmund Freud at the turn of the century.
Freud conceptualized the mind, metaphorically, as an ancient, buried ruin
which had to been unearthed much like an archeologist would unearth the
treasures of an ancient civilization. Freud's influence can be traced from
his hard-core natural science background as a student of neurology, as
well as his rarely acknowledged debt to Franz Brentano (also a teacher
of Edmund Husserl),
who taught Freud to understand that consciousness is always intentional.
This tension between a more phenomenological approach to understanding
the mind and Freud's inclination toward natural scientific explanation
is a tension which exists in all of his work and writings, as well as throughout
all of psychoanalytic theory following Freud. In fact, this tension between
understanding and explanation can be said to be a tension which exists,
whether acknowledged or not, in all of the human sciences (see, for example,
Dilthey).
Freud's version of psychoanalysis had its predecessor in the work with
hysterics conducted by neurologists Jean-Martin Charcot and Hippolyte Bernheim,
who, using hypnosis, discovered that the origins of hysteria were mental
rather than overtly physiological. Freud's colleague, Josef Breuer, first
began using his modified technique of hypnosis to treat the famous hysteric
patient with the alias 'Anna O,' who we now know to be Bertha Pappenheim.
This technique involved placing the patient in a hypnotic trance and removing
the symptoms through the use of posthypnotic suggestion. Freud, a poor
hypnotist, became especially adept at listening to these patients, and,
along with Breuer, discovered that the origins of the hysteria appeared
to involve emotionally charged events in the patients' past. When the patient,
through talking, followed associations in her memory, she was able to recover
the forgotten event, which led to the cure. Freud eventually gave up the
process of using hypnotism for the use of a technique he came to call "free
association," in which the patient was encouraged to put aside all inhibitions
and
follow her associations, which would eventually, even without hypnosis,
lead to the recovery of unconscious memory.
From the period of 1895 to roughly 1905, Freud's innovations led to
the development of his theory, all of which were developed from his clinical
work with patients. Initially theoretical formulations led to the topographic
model of the psyche, which Freud categorized into three different subsections:
the unconscious, preconscious, and conscious. Further, Freud became more
and more sophisticated in his technique of psychoanalysis, and he became
particularly adept at using his patients's subjective impressions of him
to help the patient to discover the origins of the unconscious memory (or
memories) which led to the symptoms from which she suffered. It followed
that Freud developed a theory that patients resisted remembering the trauma,
and this 'resistance' was evident in disruptions of the free association
process. Such disruptions constituted what Freud called 'defenses,' and,
most notably, the defenses involved what Freud called 'transference,' the
transference of conflictual thoughts and feelings to the analyst. Freud
also came to acknowledge that unconscious events are traceable in other
phenomena, as well, including dreams, slips of the tongue, and in jokes.
From his work with patients, Freud was eventually led to develop a more
and more sophisticated theory of the human psyche which became increasingly
understood according to a developmental model. Freud, by observing his
patients, found that many of the memories uncovered by his patients were
sexual in nature and reverted back to early childhood memories. From these
observations, Freud developed his controversial theory of childhood sexuality.
Freud eventually justified these observations with a generalized theory
of an instinctual drive, which became the foundation for his theory. At
first, Freud felt that such instincts were largely sexual in nature. Later,
he conceded that instincts also involved aggressive drives, as well as
sexual drives. In any case, Freud's development model, a theory of 'psychosexual
development,' traced the development of childhood seuxality through various
stages, organized according to 'erogenous zones,' bodily zones which are
highly sexually charged at certain stages in development: in particular,
the mouth, anus, and genitals.
Using the metaphor of a hydraulic system, Freud imagined the instincts
as consisting of a form of energy he called 'libido.' The very young infant,
Freud felt, was entirely governed by the libido, and this embedded, embodied
existence was called 'primary process thinking,' the bedrock of all experience.
This 'primary process thinking' largely consists of phantasy, omnipotent
thinking, and exists outside of linear time -- in short, it demands immediate
gratification. As the child develops through the various psychosexual stages
-- oral, anal, and phallic -- the child's libido is increasingly 'repressed'
by parental figures who train the child to delay gratification and to channel
the libido in ways that are socially appropriate. This pure libidinal drive
Freud called the 'id.' Disruptions at any of the stages of
psychosexual development, Freud observed, appeared to result in what
he called 'fixation' -- an excessive
preoccupation with that particular erogenous zone characterized either
by over-indulgence or under-indulgence. With the formation of the unconscious,
what is left-over in the conscious of the person is called 'secondary process
thinking' by Freud.
Central to Freud's theory is the "Oedipal complex." Freud discovered
that, with many of his patients, conflicts arose during the phallic stage,
which occurred between the ages of three and five. With the onset of the
phallic stage, Freud argued, the child's genitals become libidinally charged,
and this leads to a desire for the parent of the opposite sex and a feeling
of competitiveness with the parent of the same sex. The particular organization
of these conflicts depends on how the child has negotiated the earlier
psychosexual stages. Freud felt that the Oedipus complex is ultimately
resolved, at least for males, by "castration anxiety." The young boy fears
that his desire for the mother will result in the loss of his penis, which
leads him, instead, to identify with the father. From this resolution of
the conflict, the child develops an "ideal" self based on the internalization
of parental values. This "ego ideal" results in the develop of the "super-ego,"
which constitutes the often unrealistic ideals toward which the child will
strive and which inevitably conflict with the libidinal drives of the 'id.'
The partly conscious, partly unconscious self, known as the 'ego,' bears
the responsibility for negotiating between these two extremes. Thus, the
"ego" is governed by the "reality principle," which must use various defenses
to negotiate between the unrealistic motives of the "superego" ("ego ideal")
and the "id," governed by the "pleasure principle." This structure of the
psyche is the way Freud made sense of the emergence of the unconscious,
which results in the repression of libidinal drives, as well as memories,
thoughts, and feelings which arouse anxiety. Ultimately, for Freud, the
human being is in perpetual conflict with itself, torn between one's animal
nature and the ideals of one's culture internalized with the values of
one's parents.
As mentioned previously, Freud was very protective of his theory, and
he entered into conflicts with various colleagues who offered alternative
theoretical perspectives, including Alfred
Adler, Carl Jung,
Otto Rank, and Sandor
Ferenczi. All of these brilliant thinkers anticipated what would become
central themes in contemporary psychoanalytic thought, even in Freud's
later thought, although their contributions to these discoveries are often
overlooked. Further, as mentioned above, Freud's psychoanalytic theory
is only the beginning. Even those faithful to Freud would significantly
expand upon and, ultimately, transform Freud's origin insights into the
nature of psychological life.
Links
The Freud Page
by Maria Helena Rowell
The
Sigmund Freud Page
Freud Net at A. Brill
Library
Sigmund
Freud--The Father of Psychoanalysis
Freud: Conflict
and Culture
Lana Vornik
on Freud
C. George Boeree
on Freud
Peter
Landry on Freud
Sigmund
Freud page at Lucid Cafe
Freud's
Biography by Maria Helena Rowell
Sigmund
Freud by Jim Hopkins
Sigmund Freud Museum, Vienna
Freud Museum London
Freudian Slips
Burying Freud
Sigmund
Freud chronology
Abstracts from the Standard
Edition of the Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud
Freud's
The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
Freud's
The
Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901)
Freud's Clark
Lectures (1909)
Freud's
The
Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis (1910)
Freud's
The
History of the Psychoanalytic Movement (1914)
Excerpt
from Freud's "Repression" (1915)
Freud's
Preface to A Young Girl's Diary (1919)
Manuscript
page from Freud's "A Seventeenth Century Demonological Neurosis" (1923)
Freud's "The
Anatomy of the Mental Personality" (1932)
Freud's "A Philosophy
of Life" (1932)
Freud's
The Structure of the Unconscious: from "An Outline of Psycho-Analysis"
(1938)
Freud's
letter to Wilhelm Fliess (15.10.97)
Freud's
letter to Karl Weissman
Sigmund
Freud on psychoanalysis and Vienna
Notes on Freud's
"Creative Writers and Daydreaming"
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 1
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 2
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 3
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vols. 4 & 5
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 6
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 7
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 9
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 10
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 11
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 21
Notes
on Freud's S.E., Vol. 23
Original recordings
of Freud
"Sigmund Freud"
by Peter Gay
"Freud:
His Life and Thought" by Marc Fonda
"The
Body According to Freud" by Marc Fonda
"Freud,
Faerie Tales, and Dream Interpretation" by Marc Fonda
"The Psychotic
Dr. Schreber: A Critique of Freud's Theory of Paranoia" by Brent Dean Robbins
"A History of Psychoanalytic
Thought" by Brent Dean Robbins
"Reflections on
Being a Psychotherapist" by Brent Dean Robbins
"Freud, the
Feminist?" by Suzanne Brom
"In Defense of Humanism"
by Caley Michael Orr
"Out of the Shadows"
by Jennifer Severns
"Martini or
Bikini? The Question of Differance Between Philosophy and Literature"
by Rex Olson
"Writing Freud"
by Doug Davis
"Freud's
Unwritten Case: The Patient 'E'" by Doug Davis
"An Erotic
Table d'Hôte" by Doug Davis
"Freud,
Jung, and Psychoanalysis" by Doug Davis
"Theory
for the 90s: Traumatic Seduction in Historical Context" by Doug Davis
"Mal d'Archive:
Une Impression Freudienne" by Jacques Derrida (in English)
"A
Counterblast in the War on Freud: The Shrink is in" by Jonathon Lear
"The Surrealists
and Freud" by Truls Rostrup
"To the Couch:
A Revival for Analysis" by Erica Goode
"Future of the International
Psychoanalytic Association" by Dominique Scarfone
Discussion of a
paper by Salman Akhtar by Donald L. Carveth
"Between Tenderness
and Passion: Freud and the Afterwardsness of Adolescence" by Geoff
Miles
Review of Richard
Webster's Why Freud was Wrong by Tim Kendall
"Enactments: An
Evolving Dyadic Concept of Acting Out" by Douglas H. Frayn
"More
than a Cigar" by Evan J. Elkin
"Psychoanalysis,
Representation, Politics" by Sean Homer
"Oedipus
and His Human Destiny" by Eva Maria Migliavacca
"Our
Need of Taboo: Pictures of violence and mourning difficulties" by Andrzej
Werbart
"Life
Among the Analysts" by Douglas Kirsner
"Unfree Associations"
by Douglas Kirsner
"Psychoanalysis
Today: Implications for Organizational Applications" by Kenneth Eisold
"Psychoanalytic
Aesthetics: The British School" by Nicola Glover
"Hearing the Case--Freud's
Little Hans" by David Punter
"The Ideal of
the Anonymous Analyst and the Problem of Self-Disclosure" by Owen Renik
"Changes in
Psychoanalytic Technique: Progressive or Regressive?" by Manuel Furer
"Predictors of Outcome
in Child Psychoanalysis" by Peter Fonagy and Mary Target
"Beyond
the Ego and the Id Revisited" by Charles Brenner
"The Mind as
Conflict and Compromise Formation" by Charles Brenner
"Freud and Splitting"
by Andrew Brook
"Psychoanalysis
and Commonsense Psychology" by Andrew Brook
"Neuroscience
versus Psychology in Freud" by Andrew Brook
"Freud and Kant"
by Andrew Brook
"Schopenhauer
and Freud" by Christopher Young and Andrew Brook
"The
Effects of Psychotherapy: An Evaluation" by H.J. Eysenck
"Modernity and Its Discontents"
by Sergio Paulo Rouanet
"The Historical
Meaning of the Crisis in Psychology" by Lev Vygotsky
"Introduction
to Freud's 'The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis'" by Raymond E.
Fancher
"Commentary
on Freud's 'The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis'" by Raymond E.
Fancher
"The
Unconscious" by Jim Hopkins
"Psychoanalytic
and Scientific Reasoning" by Jim Hopkins
"The
Interpretation of Dreams" by Jim Hopkins
"Psychoanalysis,
Interpretation and Science" by Jim Hopkins
"Wittgenstein,
Interpretation and the Foundations of Science" by Jim Hopkins
"Dreams as Viewed
by Freud and Jung" by Brlizg
"Concepts
of Reality and Psychic Reality" by L. Kirshner
"Malignant
Self Love: Narcissism Revisited" by Sam Vaknin
"A Developmental
Model of Girls and Women" by Donna Emmanuel
"Freud and
Dora: Repressing an Oppressed Identity" by Michael Billig
"The Psychology
of Atheism" by Paul C. Vitz
"Ego: The Cauldron
of Personality" by Michael Fenichel
"Freud
is Dead...Long Live Freud" by Brian Allen
"Freud: The Master
or a Has-Been?" by John Suler
"Defense Mechanisms"
by John Suler
"Truce of the
Couch Gurus" by Barry Hugill
"Psychoanalytic
Theory: Terms and Concepts" by John Lye
"Psychoanalysis
and Literature" by John Lye
"Psychoanalytic
Criticism" by Dino Felluga
"A Dream Interpreted"
by Sam Vaknin
"Freud
and Freudianism" by Robert Sullivan and George P. Landow
"Freud
and the Interpretation of Dreams" by Matthew
"How Best to Ensure the
Future?" by Joseph Sandler
"The Future of Psychoanalysis"
by R. Horacio Etchegoyen
"Some Remarks on a Reading
of The Future Of an Illusion in 1998" By Serge Lebovici
"The Future of an Illusion"
by William Gillespie
"Sexuality, Psychoanalysis
and Social Change" by Juliet Mitchell
"Was Freud right?
Maybe, maybe not" by Beth Azar
Robert
M. Young's On-Line Archives
Elizabeth F. Loftus'
articles on repressed memory
Henry W. Beck home page
DreamWave
-- Paragon: Sigmund Freud's Shingle
Freud at Great Books
Index
What is Psychoanalysis?
International Journal of Psychoanalysis
Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association
Journal of Clinical
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic
Studies
Free Associations
Clinical
Studies: International Journal of Psychoanalysis
Journal of Psychoanalysis
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of Culture and Society
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Umbr@
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and Society
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The
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Dora
: An Analysis of a Case of Hysteria
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Five
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Interpretation
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Totem
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The
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Dr.
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